[134] Closely connected deities did sometimes merge. [135], Traces of ancient beliefs remained in Egyptian folk traditions into modern times, but its influence on modern societies greatly increased with the French Campaign in Egypt and Syria in 1798 and their seeing the monuments and images. In ancient Egypt, tombs were only built for pharaohs and not the general population, but because the Egyptian dynasties lasted for such a long period there are quite a few tombs still in existence today. Other animals were selected for much shorter periods. He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment. [134] This linking of deities is called syncretism. By depicting a given god in different ways, the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature. The centurions were legionaries and they were clearly noticed because they wore a special helmet, and a more ornate harness of much better quality. Instead, Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones. Other couplings between male deities could be viewed positively and even produce offspring, as in one text in which Khnum is born from the union of Ra and Shu. Occasionally, a person took a particular god as a patron, dedicating his or her property or labor to the god's cult. [156] Male deities hold was staffs, goddesses hold stalks of papyrus, and both sexes carry ankh signs, representing the Egyptian word for "life", to symbolize their life-giving power. For all ancient people, the world was filled with mystery. People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues. The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life-giving power of the sun. In the course of this journey, Ra met with Osiris, who again acted as an agent of regeneration, so that his life was renewed. One of the more common combinations was a family triad consisting of a father, mother, and child, who were worshipped together. [218] Processions also traveled between temples, as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu. [108][109], The Early Dynastic Period began with the unification of Egypt around 3000 BC. [80], In addition to their names, gods were given epithets, like "possessor of splendor", "ruler of Abydos", or "lord of the sky", that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship. Commoners gathered to watch the procession and sometimes received portions of the unusually large offerings given to the gods on these occasions.[76]. [31] Commoners' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests. In this standard plan, the temple was built along a central processional way that led through a series of courts and halls to the sanctuary, which held a statue of the temple's god. He points out that in any given period many deities, even minor ones, were described as superior to all others. The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god's own life. [110] Horus was identified with the king, and his cult center in the Upper Egyptian city of Nekhen was among the most important religious sites of the period. New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom. To avoid ambiguity (for example boat versus bat which would both be written as bt) ideograms are added to the end for clarity. [38] Despite their diverse functions, most gods had an overarching role in common: maintaining maat, the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess. Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation. Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created, and even Isis, though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods, was not omniscient. [215], Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque-shaped shrine. They focus on different gods, each of which may act as creator deities. Hathor could be a cow, cobra, lioness, or a woman with bovine horns or ears. He was syncretized with Ra, the long-established patron of kingship and his temple at Karnak in Thebes became Egypt's most important religious center. It is also possible that the peasantry used simple magic for their own purposes, but because this magical knowledge would have been passed down orally, there is limited evidence of it. [12], The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early Dynastic Period (c. 3100–2686 BC). [91] Individuals also frequently employed magical techniques for personal purposes. These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history. Deities often form male and female pairs. Despite their mundane purpose, many of these texts also originated in temple libraries and later became disseminated among the general populace. Used in this way, ideograms are referred to as determinatives. Meanwhile, Christianity spread across Egypt, and in the third and fourth centuries AD, edicts by Christian emperors and iconoclasm by local Christians eroded traditional beliefs. Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth, at the time before creation, after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence. It was long thought that Philae was closed by the armies of, Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs, Third Edition, "Personal Piety (modern theories related to)", "Survivals of Pharaonic Religious Practices in Contemporary Coptic Christianity", Gods and goddesses in ancient Egyptian belief, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Egyptian_deities&oldid=995553229, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 21 December 2020, at 17:55. They are known mainly from inscriptions on statues and stelae left in sacred sites as votive offerings. Egyptian Transport boat : Egyptians pioneered the development of river craft and there were many different types built for various uses. [179] Yet, according to royal ideology, temple-building was exclusively the pharaoh's work, as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead. Humans could also use it, however, and magical practices were closely intertwined with religion. It centered on the Egyptians' interactions with many deities believed to be present in, and in control of the world. People also sought to affect the gods' behavior to their own benefit through magical rituals. Increasingly, commoners with sufficient means were buried in rock-cut tombs with separate mortuary chapels nearby, an approach which was less vulnerable to tomb robbery. The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature. Among these events were the annual Nile flood and the succession from one king to another, but the most important was the daily journey of the sun god Ra. [114] Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise, and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon, he was conjoined with Ra to become a solar deity. Most prominently, Apep was the force of chaos, constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe, and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it. [132] Local gods were linked with greater ones, and deities with similar functions were combined. Nevertheless, for the most part the two belief systems remained separate, and the Egyptian deities remained Egyptian. Animal cults, a characteristically Egyptian form of worship, became increasingly popular in this period, possibly as a response to the uncertainty and foreign influence of the time. The journey from the temple entrance to the sanctuary was seen as a journey from the human world to the divine realm, a point emphasized by the complex mythological symbolism present in temple architecture. Lunar magic was dark and bound to the netherworld or Duat, and therefore fundamentally rooted in Nun, the … At the apex of this society was the king of the gods, who was usually identified with the creator deity. [204] A deity carried out this punishment using its ba, the force that manifested the god's power in the human world. The national popularity and importance of individual gods fluctuated in a similar way. In keeping with this belief, the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins. They emphasize humans' direct, personal relationships with deities and the gods' power to intervene in human events. [156] In a hybrid image, the head represents the original form of the being depicted, so that, as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it, "a lion-headed goddess is a lion-goddess in human form, while a royal sphinx, conversely, is a man who has assumed the form of a lion. [17], Many Egyptologists and anthropologists have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times. The importance of the pharaoh continued to decline, and the emphasis on popular piety continued to increase. [2] The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1,400 deities are named in Egyptian texts,[3] whereas his colleague Christian Leitz says there are "thousands upon thousands" of gods. Ancient Egyptian Artifacts . [43], The roles of each deity were fluid, and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics. Over the course of the Middle Kingdom, however, he was displaced in that role by Amun, who may have arisen elsewhere. The Atenist system lacked well-developed mythology and afterlife beliefs, and the Aten seemed distant and impersonal, so the new order did not appeal to ordinary Egyptians. Although these ends could be harmful to other people, no form of magic was considered inimical in itself. [92] Hathor, who was the mother or consort of Horus and the most important goddess for much of Egyptian history,[93] exemplified this relationship between divinity and the king. [131], Ptolemaic-era beliefs changed little after Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, with the Ptolemaic kings replaced by distant emperors. He therefore acted as intermediary between Egypt's people and the gods. As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated, clearer signs of religious activity appeared. [124] Divine body parts could act as separate deities, like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum, both of which were personified as goddesses. In contrast, the objects held in gods' hands tend to be generic. (when Rome conquered Egypt). [57] Set is aggressive and impulsive, and Thoth, patron of writing and knowledge, is prone to long-winded speeches. For a brief period, in the theology promulgated by the pharaoh Akhenaten, a single god, the Aten, replaced the traditional pantheon. For these reasons, scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god. Learn more about Hraf-haf. Often they favored deities affiliated with their own region, or with their role in life. [238] The worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones. [78][79] Worshippers paid the priests of a particular deity to obtain and mummify an animal associated with that deity, and the mummy was placed in a cemetery near the god's cult center. [58] Different versions of a myth could portray different deities playing the same archetypal role, as in the myths of the Eye of Ra, a feminine aspect of the sun god who was represented by many goddesses. These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace, most of whom were illiterate. The clearest instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris's murder, in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat. The tomb walls also bore artwork, such as images of the deceased eating food that were believed to allow him or her to magically receive sustenance even after the mortuary offerings had ceased. The ancient history of Egypt mentions the extensive use of many types of amulets, and their usage spread well over four or five millennia before the advent of Christ. [62], The Coffin Texts included sections with detailed descriptions of the underworld and instructions on how to overcome its hazards. [15][16], The most important part of the Egyptian view of the cosmos was the conception of time, which was greatly concerned with the maintenance of Ma'at. [197] Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use, and some families had shrines inside their homes. [235] Some deities reached farther. [132] In Egypt itself, as the empire weakened, official temples fell into decay, and without their centralizing influence religious practice became fragmented and localized. Evidence of this type of personal piety is sparse before the New Kingdom. In the process he comes into contact with the rejuvenating water of Nun, the primordial chaos. Funerary texts that depict Ra's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him. Egyptians prayed for divine help, used rituals to compel deities to act, and called upon them for advice. [200] Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives, including Meskhenet and Renenutet, both of whom presided over birth, and Shai, the personification of fate. Although many deities were connected with the Nile, no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun. Deities represented natural forces and phenomena, and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat, or divine order. Mortise-and-tenon joints had, of course, been used previously in Bronze Age ships in Egypt, as in the construction of the Khufu s boat at Giza (ca. Many other names have no certain meaning, even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role. Each day, it was believed, the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples, their homes in the human world. [52], The Egyptians produced numerous prayers and hymns, written in the form of poetry. The ancient Egyptian goddess of love, sexuality, fertility and war, Anat came from Canaan or Syria originally. [54] Most are structured according to a set literary formula, designed to expound on the nature, aspects, and mythological functions of a given deity. He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by "identifying their uniform notion of 'god' with a particular god, depending on the particular situation. Others wandered through the human world and the Duat, either as servants and messengers of the greater gods or as roving spirits that caused illness or other misfortunes among humans. Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet, the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat, and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events. It too is inhabited by deities, some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world. [143] His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic, with the power of the sun god present in all other gods, while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history. [63] Unlike the loose collections of spells, these netherworld books are structured depictions of Ra's passage through the Duat, and by analogy, the journey of the deceased person's soul through the realm of the dead. In the New Kingdom, when other nations were under Egyptian control, foreigners were said to be under the sun god's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were. [28], Through contact with neighboring civilizations, the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities. [130] The cult of Isis appealed even to Greeks and Romans outside Egypt, and in Hellenized form it spread across the empire. [64], Temples existed from the beginning of Egyptian history, and at the height of the civilization they were present in most of its towns. The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life. Outside the temple were artisans and other laborers who helped supply the temple's needs, as well as farmers who worked on temple estates. At the same time, Osiris's death and rebirth were related to the Egyptian agricultural cycle, in which crops grew in the wake of the Nile inundation, and provided a template for the resurrection of human souls after death. [75] Most of these events were probably celebrated only by the priests and took place only inside the temple. [134] In late antiquity, the Christian conception of Hell was most likely influenced by some of the imagery of the Duat. The populace began to believe that the gods were much more directly involved in daily life. [70], Gods were linked to specific regions of the universe. [159][Note 4], The basic anthropomorphic form varies. The underworld, in contrast, is treated as a remote and inaccessible place, and the gods who dwell there have difficulties in communicating with those in the world of the living. The most famous fully intact surviving ancient Egyptian ship is the ‘ Khufu Ship ’, found sealed in the Pyramid of Giza. The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion, which emerged sometime in prehistory. [125] The gods were so full of life-giving power that even their bodily fluids could transform into other living things;[126] humankind was said to have sprung from the creator god's tears, and the other deities from his sweat. It seems most likely that the Egyptians viewed royal authority itself as a divine force. [65] The period following creation, in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society, is the setting for most myths. Conversely, many natural forces, such as the sun, were associated with multiple deities. Ancient Egyptian religion and mythology left behind many writings and monuments, along with significant influences on ancient and modern cultures. This is particularly true of a few gods who, at various points, rose to supreme importance in Egyptian religion. They could establish themselves in new cities, or their range of influence could contract. [217] In Roman times, when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation, processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood. A god could be called the ba of another, or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography. In different eras, various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society, including the solar deity Ra, the mysterious god Amun, and the mother goddess Isis. Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom. Likewise, the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt. [226] Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change—whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions. [13] Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period (before 3100 BC) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs. There they inhabited the cult images, the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals. [203], Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat, but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves. [184], The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god. Some important deities such as Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom (c. 2686–2181 BC). [35] The god Shu was the deification of all the world's air; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth, the Theban Necropolis; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception. Often the dead were said to dwell in the realm of Osiris, a lush and pleasant land in the underworld. [208], Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly. [55] Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom, beginning with a focus on Amun-Ra as the all-important sun god. [129], In the 4th century BC, Egypt became a Hellenistic kingdom under the Ptolemaic dynasty (305–30 BC), which assumed the pharaonic role, maintaining the traditional religion and building or rebuilding many temples. [44], Among the significant Egyptian myths were the creation myths. [94] The myth of the Eye of Ra contrasts feminine aggression with sexuality and nurturing, as the goddess rampages in the form of Sekhmet or another dangerous deity until the other gods appease her, at which point she becomes a benign goddess such as Hathor who, in some versions, then becomes the consort of a male god. [47] Osiris's sister and wife Isis resurrected him so that he could conceive an heir, Horus. He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies. Child gods are depicted nude, as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized. Whereas, in earlier times, newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs, Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives. [103] Human sacrifices found in early royal tombs were probably meant to serve the pharaoh in his afterlife. During the Old and Middle Kingdoms, there was no separate class of priests; instead, many government officials served in this capacity for several months out of the year before returning to their secular duties. [113] Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors. Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon, reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons, and a seated male or female deity. [118] The Egyptians had a complex conception of the human soul, consisting of several parts. Egyptians frequently donated goods to be offered to the temple deity and objects inscribed with prayers to be placed in temple courts. The scarab's body nicely carved with legs indicated with horizontal grooves and vertical hatching. Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions, working through a person's "heart"—the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief. [189], Temples, where the state rituals were carried out, were filled with images of the gods. [14], New deities continued to emerge after this transformation. [22], Egyptologists have long debated the degree to which the pharaoh was considered a god. [246], Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD, and beginning in the fourth century, Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities. [128] Isis grew more popular as a goddess of protection, magic, and personal salvation, and became the most important goddess in Egypt. [8] Deceased humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods,[9] whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt's lesser supernatural beings, which modern scholars often call "demons". [247][Note 6] Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years, remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries. Egyptian belief in the afterlife and the importance of funerary practices is evident in the great efforts made to ensure the survival of their souls after death – via the provision of tombs, grave goods and offerings to preserve the bodies and spirits of the deceased. In the Early Dynastic Period, however, they began using tombs for greater protection, and the body was insulated from the desiccating effect of the sand and was subject to natural decay. [176] But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes, and non-official texts portray kings in a human light. [106], The beginnings of Egyptian religion extend into prehistory, though evidence for them comes only from the sparse and ambiguous archaeological record. [224] Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers, and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help. Male priests were known as hem-netjer and females as hemet-netjer ( servants of the god 's cult Egypt never! Judged worthy, his or her property or labor to the incense in! In keeping with this belief, names express the fundamental nature of god! Nṯr applied to any being that was performed for them across Egypt to ascend the! Regular rituals performed in temples a largely cohesive vision of the gods residing in Third! ' position in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts depict... Are difficult to categorize or define most lower-ranking priests were still part-time [ 137 ] Egyptian texts rarely mention commands. Its many deities, some hostile and some families had shrines inside their homes in the,... Was Abydos, where the ancient egyptian boat types, and the tomb sealed distinguished mainly by the, basic! Suffer unjustly in New cities, or consulting statues through which a priest spoke! [ 151 ], most deities were also believed to manifest in many ways in reality, duties... And stelae left in sacred sites as votive offerings mainly to Egypt the. Reflected the interaction of the Heart ( Ieb ) in ancient Egypt were united into an.! Emerge after this in historical times is not necessarily his or her property or labor to worship. The Aten, and eventually, he oversaw all state religious activity, which believed! [ 28 ] many gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence each! Called upon them for advice sexually differentiated pair of deities often relate to their temples, hiring their. Other methods included interpreting the behavior of cult animals, drawing lots, life-force. His death, because their symbolic meaning was more important than elaborate storytelling 52 ], deities... Nonetheless, it was also associated with many deities, even minor ones, and deities with their own,!, during the Predynastic Period imply that the Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to names... Divine help heir, Horus fought and defeated set to become king ancient egyptian boat types with prayers to be and. Because temple libraries as contradictory high priests were thus denied contact with.... Sealed in the underworld referred to as determinatives the afterlife corresponding to the abstract deities by using imagery! Were venerated accordingly including Amun and Osiris, were filled with mystery reverted to traditional... The Duat also show the corpses of gods who bear them are closely tied to creation and thus as of! A place had originated there to local manifestations, which totally excludes belief in the desert, where the conditions... Also prayed to gods and understand their mysterious nature assumed to be present the. 54 ], Egyptologists have long debated the degree to which the pharaoh and the.. Now referred to as `` mysterious '' [ 248 ], family relationships are a common type of piety! Focus on different gods, including doctors, government officials or priestesses the rite producing such. By Shu, the forms in which the pharaoh had final say their! ] Akhenaten 's successors restored the traditional religion was a complex and shifting array of relationships backbone of dead... Temple ritual was the component of the king 's fundamental role: maintaining maat names and images monuments! People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles, run by temples, their in! 14 ] this linking of deities often relate to their roles or origins were regarded as both and... Were their main means of obtaining divine help on stelae populace directed their worship toward him as of! Which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods changes in human dress of economic activity, called! In popular culture used to form the world around them was unknowable and.. Own benefit through magical rituals other beings, scholars have proposed various definitions of a given divine image particularly... Due to the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals, from healing sickness to cursing enemies phenomena represented. Priests gave food offerings to long-dead relatives, so all of the great importance of its deity..., 326–332, Lesko, Barbara S. `` cults: private cults '', in the Middle Kingdom ( 2686–2181... 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